Griffin Bond
For victims of Child Sexual Abuse (CSA), disclosure is a critical first step in recovery.
Gemara and Katz (2023) note, “early disclosure of CSA is necessary to put an end to the
abuse, prevent repeated victimization, protect other children, provide psychological
intervention to the impacted children and hold the abuser accountable.” However, many
survivors never disclose or do so long after the abuse has occurred.
Münzer et al. (2016) define delayed disclosure as the time between the onset of abuse and
disclosure. While that may appear to be a clear-cut definition, in practice this delay can
range from a few days to decades. In fact, many survivors do not disclose until adulthood.
In a study of adult survivors of CSA, Wager (2015) found that 75% had not disclosed their
abuse during childhood.
CHILD USA has conducted a systematic review of the global literature published since
2015. Overall, seventy-eight articles met inclusion criteria. Analysis identified four
categories of barriers to disclosure.
Internal Barriers
Internal psychological stressors and limited knowledge about CSA frequently impede
disclosure. Feelings of self-blame, shame, and anxiety commonly discourage victims from
reporting the abuse. Fears of social isolation can also inhibit disclosure (Münzer et al.
2016).
Additionally, age is an important factor. Multiple studies found that younger participants
delayed disclosure longer than older youth. As McPherson et al. (2025) note, young
children might not recognize the abusive behavior or have the language needed to
disclose. Lack of knowledge regarding sexual abuse is a critical concern. Children,
whether because of age or cultural upbringing, who lack the knowledge to identify the
perpetrator’s behavior as CSA, will be unable to disclose on their own. Educational
interventions have sought to address this gap.
Interpersonal Barriers
Disclosure requires another person for the victim to tell. The interpersonal relationships
victims have with those around them can serve as a barrier or a catalyst for disclosure.
Family members are often the first potential recipients of disclosure. Family, though, can
frequently serve as a barrier. Victims may hesitate to disclose to avoid burdening parents.
This is especially true when victims perceive their parents to be struggling due to economic
hardship, health challenges, or their own ongoing experiences of abuse. They may not
want their parents to blame themselves and feel guilty. Jackson, Newall, and Backett‐
Milburn (2015) found that children delayed disclosure for fear that it would harm their
family or loved ones.
Even when victims disclose, they may not be believed. Frequently, disbelief happens when
a child discloses to a parent that the parent’s partner abused them (Jackson, Newall, and
Backett‐Milburn 2015). Families may also try to bury the abuse for fear of reputational
harm in their communities.
Peers are often the recipients of disclosures and can be an important first resource in the
reporting process. Upon receiving the victim’s disclosure, their support and
encouragement can lead the victim to tell an adult, while disbelief or negative reactions
can silence the victim. In general, reactions to initial disclosures are quite influential.
Negative or dismissive reactions can halt disclosure altogether (Manay and Collin-Vézina,
2021).
Overall, the quality of a victim’s interpersonal relationships is an important facilitator of
disclosure (Lam 2015). Victims from dysfunctional families or those with limited social
networks are often found to be less likely to disclose.
A victim’s relationship to the perpetrator is also necessary to consider. Barriers often
appear when the perpetrator is a family member. The perpetrator could be a biological
relative or a stepfamily member. Despite the abuse, victims may still feel love or affection
toward the perpetrator and may not want to get them in trouble.
In situations where victims are isolated or have limited relationships, they may cherish the
special status and gifts the perpetrators provide to them throughout the grooming process.
On the other hand, threats of violence by the perpetrator may scare victims into staying
silent.
Institutional Barriers
Schools, child services, and law enforcement play a substantial role in disclosure. Schools
are often responsible for educating young children about CSA. Educational programs have
been designed to help children recognize abuse and know where to report it (Blakey,
Glaude, and Jennings 2019). Effective programming and education can reduce the barriers
stemming from a lack of knowledge about CSA.
Educators’ initial responses to disclosure are especially influential. Outside the family
unit, teachers are one of the few adults to see a child daily and may be able to identify
significant behavior changes that indicate possible abuse.
However, the inherent power imbalances within schools can pose a significant barrier to
disclosure. If the perpetrator is a person of authority at the school, for instance, they may
wield their power imbalance to keep the victim silent. In a study of barriers within
Zimbabwe schools Obong’o et al. (2020) found, “In some cases, children expected that an
alleged teacher perpetrator would collude with other students to tell lies about the survivor
with the aim of discrediting the survivor and their account of the abuse.” Particularly when
the perpetrator is popular at the school, such as a well-liked teacher or principal, it may be
difficult for victims to be believed. Schools may also cover up the abuse to avoid a scandal,
silencing the victims’ accusations.
A final step in the disclosure process for a victim may be reporting the perpetrator to legal
authorities and seeking formal social services for treatment. Repeated disclosures during
legal processes can retraumatize and discourage victims. Working with children
specifically also imposes additional challenges, especially if these services are underresourced to begin with. In their investigation of CSA in Pakistan, Abbas and Jabeen (2023)
write, “…the institutions (health, education, police and social services) providing services
to the children are not child friendly and professionals interacting there are not sensitized,
trained and monitored regarding child rights and child protection issues.”
There may also be specific barriers associated with being a member of a racial or ethnic
minority. Braithwaite (2018) examined the unique barriers faced by indigenous populations
in Alaska, finding that historical distrust of governmental authority led many not to formally
report the abuse or seek out social services.
Cultural Barriers
Cultural norms can either facilitate or inhibit disclosure.
Sexual topics are taboo in many communities. As a result, children may lack knowledge of
what CSA is or may not feel comfortable disclosing to anyone in their community. Living in
communities that place a premium on cohesion and reputation may make individuals or
families hesitant to publicly disclose the abuse. Moreover, if the perpetrator of abuse has a
high standing in the community, such as a religious leader, teacher, or sports coach,
accusations may not be believed, or a victim may feel or be pressured to stay silent.
For boys, in particular, the cultural atmosphere is a significant barrier. Masculinity norms
discourage boys from identifying as victims or seeking help (Sivagurunathan et al. 2019). If
the perpetrator is a man, fears of being labeled as a homosexual, particularly in
communities where homosexuality is looked down upon, can be a significant barrier. On
the other hand, when the perpetrator is an older woman, cultural stereotypes often lead
others not to view the abuse as CSA, and they may even glorify it.
For girls who are victims of CSA, they can be “blamed for provoking their CSA experiences
(Guyon et al. 2021),” and in highly patriarchal cultures, a girl’s disclosure may be ignored.
Disclosure can also be hindered by societal norms regarding chastity. Xie et al. (2017)
write, “Reporting CSA was perceived to be an action that would ruin the child’s future and
marriage. As F8 [a study participant] noted, ‘how can the (abused) child find a boyfriend
and get married later?’”
Final Takeaways
Disclosure is often a process rather than a single event. It may begin with a victim’s
informal disclosure to a peer who encourages the victim to disclose to an adult, who then
refers the information to the proper authorities. At each stage of the process, there are
many opportunities for barriers to appear and derail the survivor’s ability to seek relief. It is
critical for individuals, institutions, and communities to examine how they can facilitate
environments that are supportive of disclosure. Reducing these barriers is essential to
improving disclosure.
Author Bio
Griffin Bond is a Senior at the University of Pennsylvania studying Economics and Political
Science. He has been a Fox Fellow with CHILD USA since the fall of 2025, working with Dr.
Suruchi Sood and the social science team.
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